Which Organism Maintains A Constant Body Temperature Despite Temperature Changes In The Environment

J Oral Maxillofac Pathol. 2019 Jan-Apr; 23(i): 122–128.

Oral microbiome: Unveiling the fundamentals

Priya Nimish Deo

Department of Oral Pathology and Microbiology, Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to be University), Dental College and Hospital, Pune, Maharashtra, Republic of india

Revati Deshmukh

Department of Oral Pathology and Microbiology, Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to exist University), Dental Higher and Hospital, Pune, Maharashtra, India

Received 2018 December 5; Accepted 2019 Feb 8.

Abstract

The oral cavity has the second largest and diverse microbiota after the gut harboring over 700 species of bacteria. It nurtures numerous microorganisms which include bacteria, fungi, viruses and protozoa. The mouth with its various niches is an exceptionally complex habitat where microbes colonize the hard surfaces of the teeth and the soft tissues of the oral mucosa. In add-on to beingness the initiation point of digestion, the oral microbiome is crucial in maintaining oral likewise as systemic health. Because of the ease of sample collection, it has become the well-nigh well-studied microbiome till date. Previously, studying the microbiome was express to the conventional civilization-dependent techniques, but the abundant microflora present in the oral crenel could not exist cultured. Hence, studying the microbiome was hard. The emergence of new genomic technologies including adjacent-generation sequencing and bioinformatics has revealed the complexities of the oral microbiome. It has provided a powerful means of studying the microbiome. Agreement the oral microbiome in health and illness will give farther directions to explore the functional and metabolic alterations associated with the diseased states and to place molecular signatures for drug development and targeted therapies which will ultimately aid in rendering personalized and precision medicine. This review article is an effort to explain the different aspects of the oral microbiome in health.

Keywords: 16S rRNA, Human being Oral Microbiome Database, microbiome, adjacent-generation sequencing

INTRODUCTION

The community of microbial residents in our body is called the microbiome. The term "microbiome" is coined by Joshua Lederberg, a Nobel Prize laureate, to describe the ecological customs of symbiotic, commensal and pathogenic microorganisms. These microorganisms literally share our body space.[1] The number of microbes present in our bodies is well-nigh the same or even more as compared to that of our cells.[ii]

Oral microbiome, oral microbiota or oral microflora refers to the microorganisms plant in the human oral crenel.[iii] Oral microbiome was first identified by the Dutchman Antony van Leeuwenhoek who showtime identified oral microbiome using a microscope constructed by him.[4] He was chosen the begetter of microbiology and a pioneer who discovered both protists and bacteria.[5] In 1674, he observed his own dental plaque and reported "piddling living animalcules prettily moving."[half dozen]

Genome is the genetic material of an organism. It is the complete gear up of Deoxyribonucleic acid including all of its genes.

Oral microbiome is defined as the collective genome of microorganisms that reside in the oral crenel. After the gut, it is the second largest microbial customs in the humans. As compared with other body sites, they exhibit an astounding diversity of predicted protein functions. Human microbiome consists of a core microbiome and a variable microbiome. The core microbiome is common to all the individuals, whereas variable microbiome is unique to individuals depending on the lifestyle and physiological differences. The oral cavity has two types of surfaces on which bacteria can colonize: the hard and the soft tissues of teeth and the oral mucosa, respectively.[7] The teeth, tongue, cheeks, gingival sulcus, tonsils, hard palate and soft palate provide a rich environment in which microorganisms can flourish.[viii] The surfaces of the oral cavity are coated with a plethora of leaner, the proverbial bacterial biofilm.[9]

An ideal environment is provided by the oral cavity and associated nasopharyngeal regions for the growth of microorganisms. The normal temperature of the oral cavity on an average is 37°C without pregnant changes, which provide bacteria a stable environment to survive. Saliva too has a stable pH of 6.five–7, the favorable pH for virtually species of bacteria. Information technology keeps the bacteria hydrated and too serves as a medium for the transportation of nutrients to microorganisms.[10]

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORAL MICROBIOME

The womb of the fetus is unremarkably sterile.[11,12,thirteen] Withal, recent studies have reported intrauterine surround colonization, specifically the amniotic fluid, past oral microorganisms, in upwardly to 70% of the pregnant women.[14] The infant comes in contact with the microflora of the uterus and vagina of the female parent during delivery, and later on with the microorganisms of the atmosphere at birth. Usually, the oral cavity of the newborn is sterile in spite of the large possibility of contamination. The oral cavity is regularly inoculated with microorganisms from the get-go feeding onward, and the process of resident oral microflora acquisition begins.[12]

Fusobacterium nucleatum was the almost common cultivable microorganism found. Any surface acquires the resident microflora by the successive transmission of microorganisms to the site of potential colonization. Although the main vehicle for transmission is saliva, passive transfer from the mother, from the microorganisms present in water, milk and the surroundings, likewise occurs.[11,12,13]

At or shortly after nascence, colonization begins. Initial colonizers immediately after nascence are called the pioneer species, for instance, Streptococcus salivarius. The mouth is invaded mainly by aerobes by the one^st year and may include Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, Actinomyces, Neisseria and Veillonella. Once tooth eruption begins, these organisms can colonize on the nonshedding surfaces. More surfaces are established for colonization afterward eruption of all the teeth. Development of gingival crevices occurs for the colonization of periodontal microbes. Plaque aggregating is seen at different sites on the molar such every bit smooth surfaces and pit and fissures, for different microbial colonies to be established. Loftier species diversity and microbial succession develop by this procedure. With aging when all teeth are lost, the flora becomes similar to that in a child before tooth eruption.[6]

Leaner form multigeneric communities by adhering not only to oral surfaces, but also to each other. Their limerick and stability is influenced by specific partner relationships.[15] The germination and the evolution of communities is influenced past factors such as selective adherence to tooth surfaces or epithelium, specific cell-to-jail cell bounden as a driver of early on community composition and interaction between the organisms which leads to changes in the local environment, representing the outset step on the road to oral diseases.[xvi]

Composition OF THE ORAL MICROBIOME

A wide range of microorganisms are present in the oral cavity. It is in constant contact with and has been shown to be vulnerable to the effects of the environment.[17]

The human microbiome consists of a core microbiome and a variable microbiome. The core microbiome consists of predominant species that exist at different sites of the body nether healthy conditions. The variable microbiome has evolved in response to unique lifestyle and genotypic determinants and is exclusive to an private.[18]

The microbial environmental of the oral cavity is complex and is a rich biological setting with distinctive niches, which provide a unique surroundings for the colonization of the microbes. These niches include the gingival sulcus, the tongue, the cheek, the difficult and soft palates, the flooring of the mouth, the throat, the saliva and the teeth.[8,19]

Different surfaces in the mouth are colonized preferentially by the oral bacteria due to specific adhesins on their surface which bind to complementary receptors on an oral surface.[20]

The normal microbiome is formed by leaner, fungi, viruses, archaea and protozoa. The reports on a normal microbiome, however, are restricted to the bacteriome, and in that location are very few reports on the mycobiome–fungal microbiome.[7]

Oral cavity is ane of the most well-studied microbiomes till date with a full of 392 taxa that have at least one reference genome and the total genomes beyond the oral crenel approaching 1500.[21]

Approximately 700 species of prokaryotes have been identified in it. These species belong to 185 genera and 12 phyla, of which approximately 54% are officially named, xiv% are unnamed (but cultivated) and 32% are known only every bit uncultivated phylotypes.[nine] The 12 phlya are Firmicutes, Fusobacteria, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Chlamydiae, Chloroflexi, Spirochaetes, SR1, Synergistetes, Saccharibacteria (TM7) and Gracilibacteria (GN02).[22] At the genus level, there is a conserved oral microbial community in healthy mouths. Diversity in the microbiome is private specific and site specific, despite the similarities. The tongue has numerous papillae with few anaerobic sites and hence harbors a diverse microflora which also includes anaerobes. The areas with depression microbial diversity are the buccal and palatal mucosae.[23]

Oral microbiome may show big and rapid changes in composition and activity both spatially and temporally and are developmentally dynamic with the host. These multiplex, nonequilibrium dynamics are the result of many factors, such every bit the temporal frequency of host and diet, the response to the changes in pH, interactions among the bacteria and, on a larger time frame, factor mutations and horizontal gene transfer that extend new properties to the strain.[21]

At that place is a symbiotic relationship between the microorganisms in our mouth based on mutual benefits. The commensal populations do not cause impairment and maintain a check on the pathogenic species by not allowing them to adhere to the mucosa. The leaner become pathogenic only later on they breach the barrier of the commensals, causing infection and disease.[24]

The primary bacterial genera found in the healthy oral fissure are as follows:[12]

Gram positive:

Cocci – Abiotrophia, Peptostreptococcus, Streptococcus, Stomatococcus
Rods – Actinomyces, Bifidobacterium, Corynebacterium, Eubacterium, Lactobacillus, Propionibacterium, Pseudoramibacter, Rothia.

Gram negative:

Cocci – Moraxella, Neisseria, Veillonella
Rods – Campylobacter, Capnocytophaga, Desulfobacter, Desulfovibrio, Eikenella, Fusobacterium, Hemophilus, Leptotrichia, Prevotella, Selemonas, Simonsiella, Treponema, Wolinella.

NONBACTERIAL MEMBERS OF ORAL Cavity

The oral cavity contains various forms of microbes such every bit protozoa, fungi and viruses. Entamoeba gingivalis and Trichomonas tenax are the about commonly found protozoa and are mainly saprophytic. Candida species is the most prevalent fungi seen associated with the oral cavity. Ghannoum et al. carried out culture-independent studies on xx healthy hosts and reported 85 fungal genera. The main species observed were those belonging to Candida, Cladosporium, Aureobasidium, Saccharomycetales, Aspergillus, Fusarium and Cryptococcus.[25]

The oral habitats have the highest alpha multifariousness in the body showing the highest operational taxonomic unit-level richness, after stool samples. Lower alpha diversity is shown with the pare and vaginal microbiota. The oral sites have the everyman beta diversities where samples from the same sites among individuals (beta diverseness) are compared, which signifies that members of the population share relatively similar organisms in oral sites than in other sites of the trunk.[26] Taxonomic multifariousness within the sample is alpha diversity and that between the samples is beta multifariousness.[27]

FUNCTIONS OF THE ORAL MICROBIOME

The physiology and ecology of the microbiota become intimately connected with those of the host at both micron scale and host scale. The promotion of wellness or progression toward disease is critically influenced past the microbiota.[28] The oral microbiome normally exists in the class of a biofilm. It plays a crucial role in maintaining oral homeostasis, protecting the mouth, and preventing affliction development. Knowing the identity of the microbiome and the neighbors with which they ordinarily interact is necessary for mechanistic understanding of the cardinal players.[29]

The microbial communities present in the human body play a office in critical, physiological, metabolic and immunological functions which include digestion of food and nutrition; generation of free energy, differentiation and maturation of the host mucosa and its allowed organisation; control of fat storage and metabolic regulation; processing and detoxification of environmental chemicals; barrier function of skin and mucosa; maintenance of the immune system and the residue between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory processes; promoting microorganisms (colonization resistance) and prevention of invasion and growth of disease.[i]

THE Human MICROBIOME PROJECT

In 2008, the National Institute of Wellness launched the Human Microbiome Project (HMP) recognizing the importance of studying the man microbiome.[eight]

Contempo developments in bioinformatics accept improved the ability to study the human microbiome. These advancements gave rising to an overabundance of genomic and metagenomics studies investigating the office of microbes in different ecosystems.[30]

The HMP is a summation of multiple projects that are now being launched, concurrently, in multiple parts of the world including the U.s.a., the European Union and Asia and not a single project.[31] Understanding that >99% of microbes from the surroundings could not be easily cultured, microbial ecologists developed approaches for studying the microorganisms in situ, principally by sequencing the 16S ribosomal RNA gene (16S). Information technology is a taxonomic and a phylogenetic marker for the identification of members of microbial communities.[32]

Due to the advent of high-throughput Deoxyribonucleic acid sequencing, research on what constitutes the normal oral microbiome has expanded dramatically.[33]

9 sites from the oral cavity were sampled from healthy volunteers in the HMP. These sites were the tongue, dorsum, hard palate, buccal mucosa, keratinized gingiva or gums, palatine tonsils, throat and supra- and subgingival plaque and saliva. K Li Bihan and Methe (2013) studied the HMP database and detected a relatively stable and a small cadre oral microbiome present in a majority of samples only in depression abundance.[34]

Human ORAL MICROBIOME DATABASE

The Human Oral Microbiome Database (HOMD) provides a repository of oral bacterial genome sequences and an in-depth resource consisting of the descriptions of oral bacterial taxa, a 16S rRNA identification tool.[35]

It is a unique database which was launched in 2010 by the National Plant of Dental and Craniofacial Research for maintaining the data of oral-derived cultivable and noncultivable isolates.[36]

The expanded HOMD (eHOMD) is created with a goal of providing the scientific customs with comprehensive curated information on the bacterial species present in the human being aerodigestive tract (ADT), which includes the upper digestive and upper respiratory tracts, pharynx, nasal passages, sinuses and esophagus and the oral cavity. Genome sequences for the ADT bacteria adamant by different projects like – a role of the HOMD project – the Man Microbiome Project and other sequencing projects are being added to the eHOMD as they become available.[36]

The eHOMD contains information of approximately 772 prokaryotic species, where 70% is cultivable and 30% belong to the uncultivable class of microorganisms along with whole-genome sequences of 482 taxa. Out of the seventy% culturable species, 57% have already been assigned to their names. The 16S rDNA profiling of the healthy oral cavity categorized the inhabitant bacteria into six wide phyla, namely, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Fusobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Spirochaetes constituting 96% of the total oral bacteria.[37]

METHODS OF STUDYING THE ORAL MICROBIOME

The traditional methods of identification of microbes included culture methods which evolved from culture-dependent studies of a single species to complex in vitro multispecies communities. Civilisation-contained characterization of the entire microbiota in vivo, and analyzing the expression of individual gene to meta-omic assay, has become possible with technological advancements.[38]

In contempo years, the largest accelerate is probably by the development of culture-independent "omics" techniques. These include studying the Deoxyribonucleic acid, RNA, proteins or metabolites of the whole microbial community.[39]

The 2 fields of research that have emerged to detect and identify the presence of microbes in the body and understand the nature of microbiome action in health and disease are microbiomics and metagenomics.[18]

Metagenomics is a set of techniques which detects bacteria that cannot exist cultured. It also identifies the genomic variety of microbes by applying the ability of genomic analysis to the unabridged community of microbes.[twoscore]

Metagenomics gives data non but near the kind of organisms present, merely also their functional potential through an analysis of metabolic pathway genes. Information technology also provides information on the use of protein-coding sequence databases. It sequences the unabridged DNA from a given sample.[41]

Due to the ease with which samples can be obtained, the oral microbiome is arguably the well-studied homo microbiome to engagement.[42]

Culture and microscopy

The historical methods of identification of bacterial taxa were culture dependent. These included microscopy, biochemical and other phenotypic tests, sugar utilization, growth atmospheric condition and antibiotic sensitivity.[43] The actual diverseness of the oral microbiome cannot be completely revealed by culture-based methods. The endeavors of numerous researchers have now isolated, cultivated, identified, characterized and classified approximately l% of the estimated 700 bacterial species which are commonly present in the oral crenel.[20]

The main difficulty with the conventional civilisation and civilization-based belittling technologies is that many of the bacterial species in biological samples cannot be cultured, thus making these approaches unsuitable for research.[38]

Gel-based techniques

Due to several civilisation-independent techniques, high-throughput analysis of the microbial communities has been possible. The different techniques used are denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE), temperature gradient gel electrophoresis and brake fragment length polymorphism (RELP).[43]

Polymerase chain reaction-based methods

Conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR), real-fourth dimension quantitative PCR, PCR-DGGE, random amplified polymorphic Dna/arbitrarily primed PCR, repetitive chemical element-based PCR, multilocus sequence typing, PCR-RELP and terminal-RELP are the different PCR-based methods bachelor for the identification of microbes.[20]

DNA microarrays

In the scientific community, phylogenetic DNA micro-arrays have been identified as valuable tools for high-throughput, systematic and quantitative analysis of bacterial communities in different microbial ecosystems including the oral microbiota.[44]

16S rRNA sequencing

The two basic Deoxyribonucleic acid sequencing approaches that are commonly applied to study uncultivated oral microbial communities are 16S rRNA sequence analysis and metagenomics. 16S rRNA sequencing involves sequencing of the conserved 16S rRNA factor, whereas metagenomics involves whole-genome shotgun sequencing (WGS). All the samples of DNA are randomly sheared by a "shotgun" method. Sequencing is then washed by either classical Sanger sequencing or NGS.[45] 16S rDNA gene profiling is used in most of the recent studies to assess the organisms present in a sample or if complete profiling of gene content in a given habitat is required, shotgun metagenomics is washed.[46]

Why 16S rRNA? (i) It is nowadays in nearly all leaner, oftentimes exists as a multigene family or operons; (2) 16S rRNA gene function has not inverse over fourth dimension, which suggests that random changes in sequence are a more than precise measure of time (evolution) and (3) the 16S rRNA factor (1500 bp) is large plenty for informatics purpose.[47]

It is a highly conserved factor; hence, using information technology equally a marking is more benign than using the whole genome, equally in our database, the reference gene is less likely to be unlike than the cistron in bacteria collected from environmental samples.[48]

16S rRNA sequencing only determines the presence or abundance of bacterial species. Information technology thus merely allows researchers to draw conclusions based on observations. Shotgun metagenomics sequencing volition also reveal the associated metabolic pathways.[49]

16S rRNA profiling provides the taxonomic limerick, whereas metagenomics WGS data can provide not merely taxonomy, but likewise the biological functional profiles for the microbial communities.[l]

Next-generation sequencing platforms

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques have revolutionized the study of microbial diversity in the last decade. This has allowed for large-scale sequencing projects to be completed in a few days or sometimes hours.

The principal NGS technologies are as follows:

454 pyrosequencing
Applied Biosystems
Illumina
Pacific Biosciences
Oxford Nanopore.

For meaningful interpretations, the NGS analysis requires extensive bio-informatics capabilities involving data quality command, aligning and mapping to practiced reference genomes, filtering for reads of expert quality, removing chimeras and normalizations across samples and populations.[43]

With these tools, it has become possible for researchers for profiling of the microbiomes and metagenomes at unprecedented depths. High throughput and the fact that specific taxa demand not be targeted are the major advantages of NGS.[51]

The choices which are made at every footstep, from study design to analysis, can impact the results regardless of the methodology used to narrate them or the types of microorganisms targeted. Effigy 1 shows the steps in conducting a microbiome study.[53]

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc. Object name is JOMFP-23-122-g001.jpg

Full general overview of the workflow for 16S rRNA gene-based and metagenomics analysis of microbial communities showing the nigh important steps and considerations for each phase of the process (Courtesy – Bik EM. The Hoops, Hopes and Hypes of Human being Microbiome Research. Yale J Biol Med 2016;89:363-373)

The recommended practices for a microbiome written report are as follows:[52]

Reduce the misreckoning factors by carefully designing the study
Consistency in the awarding of experimental and analytic methods
Good record keeping so that all possible metadata can be used in statistical models
Matching of the software and the statistical toolkits to the sets of data generated
Continue detailed records of the bio-information science steps of the assay
Degradation of all the data using standard formats in public databases.

Determination

The oral microbiome is an heady and expanding field of research. Oral microbiome is crucial to wellness as it tin can cause both oral and systemic diseases. It rests within biofilms throughout the oral crenel and forms an ecosystem that maintains health in a state of equilibrium. Still, sure imbalances in this state of equilibrium let pathogens to manifest and cause affliction. Disruption of the oral microbiome leads to dysbiosis. Identifying the microbiome in health is the beginning pace of homo microbiome research, afterwards which it is necessary to understand the part of the microbiome in the alteration of functional and metabolic pathways associated with the diseased states.

Microbiome research is currently at a very nascent stage. Lot of research is being done, and data are added continuously. However, the results obtained from various studies are not consistent. This may be due to the techniques used, the standardization methods, sample size etc., Studies with a larger sample size involving dissimilar sites in health and disease are required which may develop consistent patterns to generate concrete data. This will farther identify unlike biomarkers and help in targeted therapies and personalized medicine for improve patient management in clinical do.

Financial back up and sponsorship

Nil.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

REFERENCES

ane. Kilian Chiliad, Chapple IL, Hannig M, Marsh PD, Meuric V, Pedersen AM, et al. The oral microbiome – An update for oral healthcare professionals. Br Dent J. 2016;221:657–66. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

ii. Scotti E, Boue S, Sasso GL, Zanetti F, Belcastro V, Poussin C, et al. Exploring the microbiome in health and disease: Implications for toxicology. Toxicol Res and Appl. 2017;ane:1–37. [Google Scholar]

3. Gao L, Xu T, Huang G, Jiang Southward, Gu Y, Chen F, et al. Oral microbiomes: More than and more importance in oral cavity and whole body. Protein Cell. 2018;9:488–500. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

4. Yamashita Y, Takeshita T. The oral microbiome and human health. J Oral Sci. 2017;59:201–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

5. Lane North. The unseen world: Reflections on Leeuwenhoek (1677) 'concerning little animals' Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2015;370 pii: 20140344. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

6. Patil Southward, Rao RS, Amrutha N, Sanketh DS. Oral microbial flora in health. World J Dent. 2013;4:262–half-dozen. [Google Scholar]

7. Zaura E, Nicu EA, Krom BP, Keijser BJ. Acquiring and maintaining a normal oral microbiome: Current perspective. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2014;four:85. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

eight. Dewhirst Fe, Chen T, Izard J, Paster BJ, Tanner AC, Yu WH, et al. The man oral microbiome. J Bacteriol. 2010;192:5002–17. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

9. Zhao H, Chu M, Huang Z, Yang Ten, Ran Due south, Hu B, et al. Variations in oral microbiota associated with oral cancer. Sci Rep. 2017;seven:11773. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

10. Lim Y, Totsika M, Morrison M, Punyadeera C. Oral microbiome: A New biomarker reservoir for oral and oropharyngeal cancers. Theranostics. 2017;7:4313–21. [PMC complimentary article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

11. Sowmya Y. A review on the human oral microflora. Res Rev. 2016;four:1–5. [Google Scholar]

12. Marsh PD. Role of the oral microflora in health. Microbial Ecol Wellness Dis. 2009;12:130–7. [Google Scholar]

13. Batabyal B, Chakraborty S, Biswas South. Part of the oral microflora in man population: A brief review. Int J Pharm Life Sci. 2012;3:2220–7. [Google Scholar]

xiv. Sampaio-Maia B, Monteiro-Silva F. Acquisition and maturation of oral microbiome throughout childhood: An update. Paring Res J (Isfahan) 2014;11:291–301. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

fifteen. Könönen Eastward. Development of oral bacterial flora in young children. Ann Med. 2000;32:107–12. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

16. Palmer RJ., Jr Composition and development of oral bacterial communities. Periodontol 2000. 2014;64:xx–39. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

17. Demmitt BA, Corley RP, Huibregtse BM, Keller MC, Hewitt JK, McQueen MB, et al. Genetic influences on the human oral microbiome. BMC Genomics. 2017;18:659. [PMC gratis commodity] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

18. Zarco MF, Vess TJ, Ginsburg GS. The oral microbiome in health and disease and the potential touch on on personalized dental medicine. Oral Dis. 2012;eighteen:109–20. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

19. Benn A, Heng N, Broadbent JM, Thomson WM. Studying the human oral microbiome: Challenges and the evolution of solutions. Aust Dent J. 2018;63:fourteen–24. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

twenty. Aas JA, Paster BJ, Stokes LN, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE. Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43:5721–32. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

21. McLean JS. Advancements toward a systems level agreement of the man oral microbiome. Front end Prison cell Infect Microbiol. 2014;4:98. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

22. Perera K, Al-Hebshi NN, Speicher DJ, Perera I, Johnson NW. Emerging function of leaner in oral carcinogenesis: A review with special reference to perio-pathogenic bacteria. J Oral Microbiol. 2016;8:32762. [PMC gratuitous article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

23. Sultan AS, Kong EF, Rizk AM, Jabra-Rizk MA. The oral microbiome: A Lesson in coexistence. PLoS Pathog. 2018;14:e1006719. [PMC costless article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

24. Avila M, Ojcius DM, Yilmaz O. The oral microbiota: Living with a permanent guest. Deoxyribonucleic acid Cell Biol. 2009;28:405–11. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

25. Sharma N, Bhatia S, Sodhi Equally, Batra Due north. Oral microbiome and health. AIMS Microbiol. 2018;iv:42–66. [Google Scholar]

26. Moon HJ. Probing the diverseness of good for you oral microbiome with bioinformatics approaches. BMB Rep. 2016;49:662–70. [PMC costless article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

28. Marking Welch JL, Rossetti BJ, Rieken CW, Dewhirst FE, Borisy GG. Biogeography of a human oral microbiome at the micron calibration. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2016;113:E791–800. [PMC free commodity] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

29. Jia G, Zhi A, Lai PF, Wang K, Xia Y, Xiong Z, et al. The oral microbiota-a mechanistic function for systemic diseases. Br Dent J. 2018;224:447–55. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

thirty. Gilbert JA, Dupont CL. Microbial metagenomics: Beyond the genome. Ann Rev Mar Sci. 2011;3:347–71. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

31. Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Hamady G, Liggett CF, Knight R, Gordon JI. The human being microbiome project: Exploring the microbial function of ourselves in a changing globe. Nature. 2007;449:804–10. [PMC complimentary article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

32. Gevers D, Knight R, Petrosino JF, Huang One thousand, McGuire AL, Birren BW, et al. The human microbiome project: A community resources for the healthy man microbiome. PLoS Biol. 2012;x:e1001377. [PMC gratis commodity] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

33. Warinner C. Dental calculus and the development of the human oral microbiome. J Calif Dent Assoc. 2016;44:411–twenty. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

34. Ames NJ, Ranucci A, Moriyama B, Wallen GR. The human microbiome and understanding the 16S rRNA gene in translational nursing science. Nurs Res. 2017;66:184–97. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

35. Wade WG. The oral microbiome in health and disease. Pharmacol Res. 2013;69:137–43. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

36. Chen T, Yu WH, Izard J, Baranova OV, Lakshmanan A, Dewhirst Atomic number 26, et al. The human being oral microbiome database: A spider web accessible resource for investigating oral microbe taxonomic and genomic information. Database (Oxford) 2010;2010:baq013. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

37. Verma D, Garg PK, Dubey AK. Insights into the human oral microbiome. Curvation Microbiol. 2018;200:525–40. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

38. Pozhitkov AE, Beikler T, Flemmig T, Noble PA. High-throughput methods for analysis of the human being oral microbiome. Periodontol 2000. 2011;55:lxx–86. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

39. Mira A. Oral microbiome studies: Potential diagnostic and therapeutic implications. Adv Dent Res. 2018;29:71–7. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

40. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (The states); 2007. [Last accessed on 2018 Dec 03]. The New Science of Metagenomics: Revealing the Secrets of Our Microbial Planet. Bachelor from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK54006/ [Google Scholar]

41. Baker JL, Bor B, Agnello Grand, Shi W, He X. Ecology of oral microbiome beyond bacteria. Trends Microbiol. 2017;25:362–74. [PMC gratuitous article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

42. Shaw PL. The oral microbiome. Emerg Top Life Sci. 2017;one:287–96. [Google Scholar]

43. Krishnan M, Chen T, Paster BJ. A practical guide to the oral microbiome and its relation to wellness and illness. Oral Dis. 2017;23:276–86. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

44. Parolin C, Giordani B, Ñahui Palomino RA, Biagi E, Severgnini M, Consolandi C, et al. Design and validation of a Dna-microarray for phylogenetic analysis of bacterial communities in different oral samples and dental implants. Sci Rep. 2017;7:6280. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

45. Xu P, Gunsolley J. Application of metagenomics in agreement oral health and disease. Virulence. 2014;five:424–32. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

46. Kuczynski J, Stombaugh J, Walters WA, Gonzalez A, Caporaso JG, Knight R. Using QIIME to analyze 16S rRNA cistron sequences from microbial communities. Current Protocols in Bioinformatics. 2011;36:10.vii.1–10.7.20. Doi:ten.1002/0471250953.bi1007s36. [PMC free commodity] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

47. Janda JM, Abbott SL. 16S rRNA factor sequencing for bacterial identification in the diagnostic laboratory: Pluses, perils, and pitfalls. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45:2761–4. [PMC gratuitous commodity] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

48. Tran Q, Pham DT, Phan V. Using 16S rRNA cistron as marking to observe unknown bacteria in microbial communities. BMC Bioinformatics. 2017;18:499. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

49. Le Bars P, Matamoros Southward, Montassier Due east, Le Vacon F, Potel M, Soueidan A, et al. The mouth microbiota: Between health, oral disease, and cancers of the aerodigestive tract. Can J Microbiol. 2017;63:475–92. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

50. Moon JH, Lee JH. Probing the diversity of healthy oral microbiome with bioinformatics approaches. BMB Rep. 2016;49:662–70. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

51. Zaura E, Keijser BJ, Huse SM, Crielaard W. Defining the healthy "core microbiome" of oral microbial communities. BMC Microbiol. 2009;nine:259. [PMC free commodity] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

52. Goodrich JK, Di Rienzi SC, Poole AC, Koren O, Walters WA, Caporaso JG, et al. Conducting a microbiome study. Cell. 2014;158:250–62. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

53. Bik EM. The hoops, hopes and hypes of human microbiome research. Yale J Biol Med. 2016;89:363–73. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Periodical of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology : JOMFP are provided here courtesy of Wolters Kluwer -- Medknow Publications

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6503789/

Posted by: ginsburgfesed1985.blogspot.com